Increasing population Essay Example for Free

Increasing population Essay Increasing population poses a greater threat to the future of our planet than consumption. Hinrichsen explains the effects of population to our environment. As the world population grows, the demand for natural resources also increases. Consumption poses a threat in the sense that it is needed to accommodate the worlds population. It is possible to reduce consumption the lesser population the world has, but while the population grows, more and more resources are needed, even at least to support the basic needs like food and shelter. Population has been growing faster than food supplies in 64 of 105 developing countries. Arable lands and forests are also exploited to meet the demand of increasing population. Fresh water sources cannot keep up its pace of renewing itself from a steadily increasing population. The seas are also overexploited to supply the demand of population. Futhermore, human activities also affect the environment through poor sanitation and pollution. The more people there are, the more contributors to threatening the future of our planet. 2) Based on your answer to question 1, please name two potential solutions to mitigate the impact this threat has on the planet (be specific). Hinrichsen suggested sollutions to the problem posed by the increasing world population. The most obvious one is to reduce population growth rate. â€Å"Slowing population growth would buy time to protect natural resources† (Hinrichsen, 2000). Family planning programs, aside from improving the welfare of families, will play a key role to stabilizing world population and the future would benefit from it. Energy conservation would also play a vital role to preserving our future, however little it may contribute. Increasing energy efficiency, like carbon efficiency in automobiles, would eventually reduce pollution. Hinrichsen also suggested that managing cities better and discouraging technologies that produce high levels of wastes would help save the future of the world. Bibliography Hinrichsen, Don and Bryant Robey. â€Å"Population and the environment: A global challenge. † Excerpts from a Johns Hopkins University report. October 2000. American Institute of Biological Sciences. 3 July 2008 http://www. actionbioscience. org/environment/hinrichsen_robey. html

Art And Hyper Reality In Animation How Have Things Changed Film Essay

Art And Hyper Reality In Animation How Have Things Changed Film Essay Introduction In this dissertation I will be posing the question Art and hyper reality in animation and how have things changed? A lot of commercial animation today is being pushed by 3D computer technology and the audience perceptions of the true meaning of animation had been clouded by this new era of animated film. I want to find out about the commercial acceptance of animation and the history behind it. This is an interesting subject area because a lot has changed in the past 50 years in terms of animation and moving image. I will be finding out how recent technological advancements in creating realistic looking visuals has effected how we perceive animation and if it has retracted from the original statement that animation is an art form. Recent commercial animation being produced is full of realistic 3D computer graphics therefore moving away from the more traditional 2D animation process. I want to find out why using a sense of visual realism in animation has become the norm. By looking at a range of hyper realistic animation such as Final Fantasy I will be able to find out why they have become so accepted and how the modern audience have adapted their tastes to this new form of representation in cinema. Modernism and post-modernism movements were very powerful in the art world and I want to see how breaking away from a certain way of working brings a new wave of creation, this chapter can be applied to animation in the way that animation has broken away from using pencils and now rely heavily on computer technology. I will also be looking into animators that were the pioneers of the animated form and what they were trying to achieve in the early stages of this emerging medium. These early animators were seen as being experimental because they were the first people that were doing this kind of work. Also by looking into Disney and the way he managed to commercialise animation will give clues as to how 3D computer animation has done the same thing with the likes of Pixar. Audience trends play a big role into finding out about commercialisation and how society/ culture can affect certain trends. By looking into the re-invention of cinema and its audiences I will be able to find out how these factors have changed how people perceive art in cinema. I will then summarise what I have learnt from doing this dissertation and answer my title question in relation to the chapters I have discussed. Contents Reality effects in computer animation. My first chapter will be discussing reality effects in computer animation. I will be referencing an article by Lev Manovich and reviewing the content in this chapter. This article is relevant to the title question because it looks at how technology has affected the process of making realistic looking visuals. This chapter will help me to understand how visual realistic imagery has advanced and why 3D visuals are superseding traditional ways of working. I will also be mentioning and talking about some animated films which use computer technology and how they have helped push the boundaries of what can be achieved by using this technology. Animation and its progression to commercialism My second chapter will be looking into experimental animation which will discuss the reason why animation visuals dont have to make sense to still be true to the animated form. Experimental animation is a genre in itself and I will be looking at why new audiences want to see visually realistic imagery over an abstract film. I will also be discussing how Walt Disney commercialised animation and how this has changed the audiences perception of animation. This chapter will create a contrast between the first chapter and show just how different these animated practices are. Modern and post-modern movements My third chapter will be talking about the modern and post-modern movements and finding where animation fits into them. This will be interesting to look into because these movements can be applied to what is happening now such as cinema breaking away from more traditional 2D animation to 3D hyper realistic animation. Modern Audience in relation to animation My fourth chapter will be looking into audience trends in the cinema. This will help me to understand why audiences are becoming more and more comfortable with being exposed to computer generated imagery when 20 years ago the industry was more interested in traditional 2D and stop motion imagery. Conclusion My final chapter will be concluding what I have studied in this dissertation and answering the title question. Chapter 1: Reality Effects in Computer Animation I will be reviewing the article, Reality Effects in Computer Animation by Lev Manovich, which is from Jayne Pillings book A Reader In Animation Studies London 1998. Lev Manovich is an author of new media books and a professor of Visual Arts, University of California, San Diego, U.S. where he teaches new media art and theory. I will also be discussing what methods animators go through to achieve a sense of realism. The purpose of the article is to identify how reality in animation and cinema first developed and how different levels of realism have affected these industries. The title question is important because the rapid growth of cinematic and computer technology is constantly changing the advances in reproducing reality. Therefore it is interesting to find out how other practitioners have identified the term realism and the impact their thoughts have had in defining the purpose of reality in computer animation. The main points I will be discussing in this review will be the compar isons between early attempts of realism and three dimensional computer graphics. I will also be discussing how the developments of new technology have further enhanced realism in regards to computer animation and cinema. This article starts with outlining the early discoveries of recreating the human form in a visual output such as paintings. Giotto di Bondone (an Italian painter) has been mentioned as being the first person to produce three-dimensional forms on a flat surface. He has been compared with his mentor Cenni di Pepo or also known as Cimabue who was also an Italian painter. Cimabues work in comparison with three-dimensional computer imagery is mentioned as having a more 2D look unlike Giotto whose work achieves a stronger 3D effect. This comparison is relevant to the realism debate because Giotto has been considered as the first great artist of the Italian Renaissance, which was a turning point in art history and the incorporation of realistic techniques. The article then goes on to say that A Renaissance painting and a computer image employ the same technique (a set of consistent depth cues) to create an illusion of space, existent or imaginary. However the difference between the mediums is that a viewer can now experience moving around a simulated three-dimensional space, which isnt possible with a painting. To then approach the problems of realism in three-dimensional computer animation Lev starts by looking at the arguments that have advanced in film theory in regards to cinematic realism. This is a good avenue to look down because a lot of computer animation is being incorporated into live-action films these days so a better understanding of cinema realism will further enhance the importance of reality effects in computer animation. However I think the incorporation of the Italian painters as a comparison to computer generated imagery is a bit dated and it would be beneficial if more modern examples were shown as computer animation is seen as a modern art form and it has only really been around since the 1950s. Technology has played a big part in making computer graphics look realistic and Lev had covered this topic in some detail. The term mimesis has been brought up in this section because the modern technology of cinema has been seen in Andrà © Basins eyes as being a realisation of this ancient myth. Mimesis is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings which include imitation, representation, mimicry, similarity and the art of resembling. Therefore mimesis can be related back to reality because the term explains certain factors that affect a realistic outcome such as the art of resembling. For example resemblance can also mean similarity, which is what commercial computer animation tries to recreate, taking a look at real life and recreating it in a virtual world. Manovich states each new technological development (e.g. sound, panchromatic stock, colour) points to the viewers just how un-realistic the previous image was and reminds them that the present ima ge, even though more realistic, will be superseded in the future- thus constantly sustaining the state of disavowal. So by something that is believed to be realistic at a certain period in time will soon become out-dated because technology is rapidly evolving, therefore the notion of never being able to recreate reality in regards to computer animation is an interesting concept and ideology. In terms of animation software Lev then goes on to say. New algorithms to produce new effects are constantly being developed. To stay competitive, a company has to quickly incorporate the new software into their offerings. The animations are designed to show off the latest algorithm. This statement backs up the technological advances in realistic looking computer graphics and can also explain how computer imagery is becoming ever more impressive and pioneering than the previous production. There are different levels of realism for example in animation practice the art of walk cycles display a realistic quality but they will never capture the true essence of the human form compared to live action. Whether a 3D character is walking, running or jumping, it is difficult to recreate a realistic sense of movement when working frame-by-frame. Footage created with frame-by-frame photography in 3D animation lacks the motion blur that occurs naturally when a figure moves in real time before a live action camera. So certain techniques that can be achieved using a computer that can control the motion and add a blur effect to create a realistic sense of movement. Rotoscoping is a technique that allows animators to trace over live action film one frame at a time therefore creating flawless movements and realism to any character or object. However this process is in a way cheating because no one is animating the movements but instead just tracing over and copying the movements that are already there, therefore loosing the skill and style of an animator. Human movements can also be captured by using a technique called motion capture. This technique uses sensors to record the movement of an object in live action, motion capture is a computer driven animation system which allows a director to rehearse and direct the movements of a three-dimensional character. Almost all 3D animation is shot horizontally on a set of some kind just like live action film whereas 2D is generally recorded from a camera placed overhead (vertically). The use of sets for 3D animation makes it possible to get a number of angles whilst filming the action, this way of filming can create a sense of realism to the audience. For example the use of these cinematic angles that are also used in live action film could make the audience believe that they ar e watching something real because the same shots are used in films when capturing real life actors. Jan Svankmajers Alice shot his live action/animation film at full scale placing his live actress and animated characters within what appears to be real rooms, or outside on a rocky terrain. The way in which this film was shot makes it realistic because of the mixture of a live action actress and animated real life objects such as the stuffed rabbit toy. Realism in animation can be good because the audience can relate to what they see and can almost gain comfort from what they know; such as the animated film Bolt where the dogs characteristics are so life like and realistic that you could imagine seeing this dog in real life. Final Fantasy the spirits within was a groundbreaking film at the time because of its hyper-realistic look. Roger Ebert was a strong advocate of the film; he gave it 3 ½ stars out of 4, praising it as a technical milestone while conceding that its nuts and bolts story lacked the intelligence and daring of, say, Steven Spielbergs A.I.. He noted that while he did not once feel convinced Aki Ross was an actual human being she was lifelike, stating her creators dare us to admire their craft. Ebert expressed a desire for the film to succeed in hopes of seeing more films made in its image, though he was sceptical of its ability to be accepted in the wider audience. This happened to be the case as the box office figures for Final Fantasy strongly indicate a lack of positive reaction from audiences, a fact further supported by the overwhelmingly poor response from film critics. To summarise, the terms reality and realism play a big part in computer animation because people are endlessly re-duplicating the visible so that the viewer can relate to the imagery and be impressed by what can be achieved using these technologies. Therefore the role of realism will always be apparent and a defining factor in computer animation. With the accessibility of the internet, freelance artists are constantly out-doing each other which is also driving the production of reality effects and advancements in technology. The article as a whole has shown me that reality in computer animation is a competitive business and that the technologies used to create these effects werent originally designed for entertainment purposes. I have found that not every theorist such as David Bordwell and Andrà © Bazin share the same views or opinions so it becomes difficult to get a true definition or the sense of a certain ideology. The possibilities of recreating reality effects in computer animation are endless because using 3D effects in cinema is becoming the norm almost. Moreover the demand for incredible effects and imaginative imagery is becoming more apparent every year because film makers know that this is what the audience wants to see. Also with the abundance of new technology, computerised imagery is becoming easier to create. Chapter 2: Animation and its progression to commercialism In the beginning all animation was experimental. Experimental animation can be seen as one of the realist form of animation because it is not trying to conform to a certain genre or ideology but rather lean towards an experimental, more abstract or random approach to what is being displayed. Film historian William Moritz quotes: No animation film that is not non-objective and/ or non- linear can really qualify as true animation, since the conventional linear representational story has long since been far better done in live-action. Here Moritz defines what may be regarded as a purist view of what properly constitutes as true animation. He is suggesting that the animated form is best shown when the concentration is purely on using, developing and experimenting with the unique vocabulary which is available only in animation. The freedom of animation has allowed certain animators and artists not to find appropriate means by which they express their vision, but to further progress the medium. Moreover the reason to push the boundaries of what an animator is doing makes an experimental piece truly experimental. Abstraction goes hand in hand with experimental animation because something being abstract can exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Animators which pioneered this new animated art form such as Emile Cohl, Stuart Blackton and Windsor McCay used very basic ways of working mainly due to the fact that they didnt know any better or the technology wasnt available to them. Artists such as Jules Engel who began his animation career working on Disneys Fantasia and UPA cartoons refers to experimental animation as fine art animation because he sees his way of working as more of an art form rather than a commercialized commodity. There were animators that wanted commercial success for the fact that they wanted animation to be seen by everyone. Stuart Blacktons trick film, The Haunted Hotel further enhanced the view that the animated short mig ht become more commercially viable. Walt Disney was the man who broke away from experimental animation and brought a new era of animated film into the commercial limelight. Disney was the first to produce an animated feature-length film called Snow White. Critics however dubbed the project Disneys Folly and were certain that the project would destroy the Disney Studio. Walt used the Silly Symphonies as a platform for experiments in realistic human animation, distinctive character animation, special effects, and the use of specialized processes and apparatus such as the multiplane camera. Walts drive to perfect the art of animation was endless. Technicolor was introduced to animation during the production of his Silly Symphonies Cartoon Features. Walt Disney held the patent for Technicolor for two years, allowing him to make the only colour cartoons. This further held his grip on the animation industry at the time. Disney played an active role in behind the scenes in World War II. He was asked to create training and ins tructional films for the military, home-front morale-boosting shorts such as Der Fuehrers Face and the feature film Victory Through Air Power in 1943. It is clear that in the post-war period in America, Disney started to integrate himself into the world of politics. Disney was the founding member of the anti-communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals. However Disney was not an aggressive person and kept very reserved    in 1947, during the early years of the Cold War. Disney testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), where he branded Herbert Sorrell, David Hilberman and William Pomerance, former animators and labor union organizers, as Communist agitators. This was the start of Disney becoming a global brand and ultimately being boosted into the commercial spotlight. The development of Disney Land and Disney World soon rocketed Disneys success; these amusement parks especially in their early stages were Disneys personal proje cts. A pitch kit which was prepared for visitors to read when they enter through an entrance describes Disneyland in detail. The idea of Disneyland is a simple one. It will be a place for people to find happiness and knowledge. It will be a place for parents and children to share pleasant times in one anothers company, a place for teacher and pupils to discover greater ways of nostalgia of days gone by, and the younger generation can savor the challenge of the future. Here will be the wonders of nature and man for all to see and understand. This description of Disneyland also applies to everything that Disney represents and this is how his animation has skyrocketed into the mainstream by the fact that it is so universally appealing to all races and cultures. Pixar is an animation company that focuses on using computer generated imagery in their films. Pixar has gone from strength to strength because of their use of likable characters, engaging stories and visual aesthetics. You could compare Pixars recent success with how Disney first started. In the early 90s computer graphics, especially in commercial work was primarily used to create effects such as flying logos and morphing. Pixar settled into a niche by using computer animation to create character animation which very few studios at the time were doing. Most of the animators who started in Pixar used to work at Disney and in the spring of 1991, Pixar and Disney signed a co-production agreement for three pictures. So going back full circle, Disney was still at the forefront of the next revolution in animation. Toy Story was the first Disney/ Pixar film to be made and was released on November 22nd 1995. It became a phenomenon and ended up as the top grossing film of the year, as well as one of the best reviewed. Toy story was the first feature film to be entirely made using CGI which made people realize that using computers to create animation was a viable way of working. Soon after this revolution in computer animation, we soon start to see popular live action directors such as Steven Spielberg and James Cameron using this new medium in their films to create special effects. Working with this technology is cheaper than the old fashioned ways of working such as creating elaborate sets or real life explosions. CGI allows film makers to create the unimaginable and impossible because the only limitations of what can be achieved rests within our own imaginations. Moreover this allows certain films to have that wow factor that cinema audiences crave in a film. As technology has moved on many amateur film makers can also work with CGI because of affordable animation and compositing software, furthermore pushing the boundaries and the potential of what can be achieved with this relatively new medium. Traditional ways of working such as using animation cels and ink in an animated film have been shunned out in favour of CGI graphics. However many daytime cartoons such as Spongebob square pants are still made using these methods. Cartoons in the Golden Age of Hollywood animation were normally created in-house whereas nowadays cel animation is shipped off overseas to places such as Korea because they can be produced more cheaply. This then strips the amount of artistic talent and personalisation of the cartoon because of the mass production side of things. In the 1950s animators such as Tex Avery made cartoons to make people laugh, his mentality towards his cartoons was to think in gags and hold no restrictions to his drawings. Therefore the cartoons became a lot more personal. From watching some of Tex Averys animated cartoons we cant help but notice the amount of limited animation such as the holding of certain frames and gags. However this was a common occurrence from animations i n that time period. Blitz Wolf is an animation based upon Adolf Hitler; it is a brilliant piece of animation as well as a wonderful example of propaganda in wartime. In the short the wolfs car features a logo Der fewer (der better) brilliant in its simplicity. When the wolf steps outside with a leering face he watches the audience and shows a sign saying Go ahead and hiss, who cares a very good representation of Hitlers insolence before the war when he made some despicable acts that he didnt care were going to affect his international reputation. Tex a has a non-realist approach to animation because his cartoons encouraged animators to stretch the boundaries of the medium and do things in a cartoon that would not be possible in the world of live-action film. For example a scene in Dumb Hounded shows the wolf running down a flight of stairs at an impossible speed then enters a car before travelling around the world to get away from Droopy. Also in The Early Bird Dood It there is a sc ene where the chicken is chasing the worm with a wooden bat, soon after the chicken is staring a cat in the face and his wooden bat turns all floppy. A quoted line from Averys cartoons was, In a cartoon you can do anything, and his cartoons repeatedly did just that. In 2009 The Princess and the Frog was released by Disney. This film used traditional 2D hand drawn techniques mixed with digital drawn aspects such as the backgrounds and effects. This film showed that traditional 2D animation can still be achieved and still capture the attention and imagination of a modern audience, the film with its universal rating appealed to all ages. Chapter 3: Is Animation Seen As A Modernist Or Post-Modernist Art Form? Modernism and Post-modernism are two subjects that are constantly being discussed in the art world. For me to answer the title question thoroughly and informatively I must first address the main factors of this chapter, Modernism and Post-modernism. I will be discussing the history of Modernism, how the movement started and how it affected the art world. This will allow me to understand how to tackle the question for this chapter. I will be also be discussing the same points in relation to Post-modernism. After looking into these movements I will conclude my findings and incorporate my own personal opinions and thoughts about what I have found in my research. Looking into the history of animation will also be beneficial because this art form is an integral part of this chapter and dissertation. After gaining a better understanding of these movements I will be able to answer the question is animation is a modernist or post-modernist art form? Modern as a historical art term, refers to a period in history that dates roughly from the 1860s through the 1970s and is used to describe the style and the ideology of art produced during that era. The term Modernism is also used to refer to the art of the modern period and philosophy of Modern Art. The Modernist movement first emerged in 1862 and 1863 when the painting Le dà ©jeuner sur lherbe, which is French for The Lunch On The Grass; was created by Édouard Manet. This particular piece of art sparked controversy even to this day because it displayed nude women around fully clothed men, which was seen as indecent behaviour and a taboo subject in the time it was painted. Manet deliberately chose a large canvas size which were normally reserved for grander subjects therefore he broke the academic traditions of the time. But the question can be posed: Why did Manet paint Le Dà ©jeuner sur lherbe? My answer would be because he was interested in exploring new subject matter, new painting ideologies, and new ways of thinking. Therefore he rebelled against the conventional subject matters that were common in this period of history and adopted the new found modernist approach. The Modernist movement can be seen as a socially progressive trend of thought that encouraged human beings to create improve upon and redefine their environment with the help of experimentation, technology and an open mind with no boundaries. Avant-garde was the term given rather than Modernism at first, this term remained to describe the movements that identify themselves as attempting to overthrow or reinvent some aspect of tradition. The English dictionary refers the term Avant-garde as writers, artists, filmmakers, or musicians whose work is innovative, experimental, or unconventional and is considered as a group. I have included this dictionary reference to see if the term is described in the same way as the art world interprets it, because in some instances the true meaning and no tion of the word can be misrepresented. By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture which sparked an influx in artistic movements. Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism, Dadaism and Pop art are a few movements that appeared throughout the 20th century. As Modernism started to flourish through the consumer/capitalist societies it soon entered mainstream popular culture which was the main factor the movement rejected in the first place. Therefore the movement had become so institutionalised that it was seen as post avant-garde and soon adopted the term Post-Modern. However for others such as art critic Robert Hughes they refer to post-modernism as being an extension of modernism. The postmodernist movement began in America around the 1960s-1970s and then it spread to Europe and the rest of the world, this movement is still present today. Post-modernism is used in a confusing variety of ways. For some it means anti-modern; for others it means the revision of modernist ideologies. The term Post signifies a historical sequencing in which a previous state of affairs is outdated, therefore functioning in the first instance as a period defining term. Postmodernism in its simple form means after the modernist movement while the term modern refers to something related with the present. What people first thought was modern and modernistic, others were dissatisfied with what they saw because of the way Modernism has evolved therefore leading to a Postmodernist movement. Post-modernism was primarily a reaction to Modernism because the Modernist movement was seen as fraudulent and contradicting. This movement began with architecture, as a reactionary movement against the so-called blandness and conventionalisation present in the modernist movement. Architects werent interested in creating perfect buildings that conformed to certain social rules. Instead architects such as Michael Graves took it upon themselves to favour personal preferences over popular culture therefore creating a post modernist structure. Postmodernists felt the buildings failed to meet the human need for comfort both for body and for the eye. Modernism did not account for the desire for beauty. The post-modern philosophy is distinguished by factors such as criticism, scepticism and subjectivity. In my opinion from looking at my research I would class post-modernism as having the same ideologies as the modernist movement as in wanting to break away from the conventional and mainstream. Moreover post-modernism was breaking away from the now mainstream movement Modernism therefore creating a new movement altogether, Post-modernism. Animation has been around since the turn of the 20th century when filmmakers such as J. Stuart Blackton made the first animated film called Humorous phases of funny faces. Blackton drew comical faces on a blackboard and filmed them. He would stop the film, erase one face to draw another, and then film the newly drawn face. The stop-motion provided an animated effect as the facial expressions changed before the viewers eyes. Humorous Phases of Funny Faces is regularly cited as the first true animated film, and Blackton is considered the first true animator. Animation is different from live action film in the sense that there are limitless amounts of possibilities that can be achieved because the only real boundary is the artists imagination rather than physical restraints. In the early 1900s animation was dominated by Disney productions such as Snow White, which marked the golden age of Hollywood animation. Through the 1950s animation became a lot more stylised and broke away from the mainstream Disney style. The animations in this period incorporated modern art aesthetics such as in the backgrounds and general stylisation of characters. As technology evolved the use of computers started to play a part in animation. For example artists were now able to reproduce shapes, characters and scenery digitally without the need for pencils and paper, therefore allowing the animator to watch their progression in real time instead of having to film each frame. After researching it could be said that early animation such as traditional hand drawn and stop motion are a modernist art form and that the incorporation of computers and 3D animation nowadays can be seen as being post-modern because it has broken away from the traditional ways of working. So is animation a modern or post-modern art form? From my research into both movements I can positively say that animation is a post-modernist art form. I have come to this conclusion based on the fact that cinema is a modernist art form and animation was developed as a new form of expression and creative output that broke away from the mainstream which was cinema at the time. By writing this chapter it has given me a better understanding of what art movements occurred during certain periods and the impact they created in society. My next question would be what movement is going to emerge next after post-modernism and what kind of creativity and ways of thinking are go

Challenging The Validity Of Fingerprint Evidence

Challenging The Validity Of Fingerprint Evidence The reliability of fingerprint evidence as a means of identification for purpose of court continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. However, despite a long tradition of forensic identification to individualize prints there have been some recent challenges as to the scientific basis for fingerprint evidence. These challenges stem from valid concerns about the potential for human errors in fingerprint matching. A major factor in trying to establish the validity of fingerprint evidence is the theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of forensic science. The psychological aspect of forensic science (the preparation of physical evidence for purpose of court) is also a potential Achilles heel as to the validity of fingerprint evidence in particular in countries with an adversarial legal system where the function of counsel is largely to undermine the credibility of the evidence presented. Key words: prints, marks, reliability, validity, probability, error, bias Introduction A [finger]print is a record taken by police of a (usually) known individual under controlled conditions. A mark is an impression found at a crime scene. The role of fingerprint examiners (dactyloscopists) is to analyse marks (individualize marks) to determine whether it/they match the print/s of a known individual. Fingerprints are routinely used by police in order to identify suspects and victims of crime (e.g. homicide) and fingerprint evidence remain one of the most trusted forms of forensic evidence used in a court of law. Despite this, the various techniques used by fingerprint examiners have neither been scientifically tested nor published in scientific peer reviewed journals. The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a means of identification (individualization) is based on a theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of forensic science, including: persistence, uniqueness and transferability of prints and marks for purpose of identification. Until recently there had been no scientific studies conducted to validate fingerprints as physical evidence of identification. Despite this significant gap in the science of fingerprint evidence, the evidential value of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned. The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a means of identification continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. However, the use of fingerprint identification as evidence at court inevitably leads to interactions between science and the law where basic assumptions are frequently challenged. There are two different kinds of issues which may arise when presenting fingerprints as evidence at court: (i) the lack of scientific rigour in the techniques used, and; (ii) the influence of cognitive biases on expert evidence. The evidential value of fingerprint identification Fingerprint identification as its used in the criminal justice system is typically done by comparing and attempting to match a mark (latent fingerprint) found at a crime scene with a print taken from a known suspect. The various techniques used by fingerprint examiners in matching two prints are different from e.g. biometric fingerprint checks introduced by the UK Border Agency (UKBA) in 2009 as a means of identification to improve on airport security. The lack of scientific rigour in the techniques used Whilst the evidential value of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned, even by its critics, it is often assumed that its the theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of fingerprint evidence, such as the uniqueness and transferability of fingerprints, which make fingerprint identification well suited as forensic evidence for purpose of court. However, these theoretical underpinnings are often not backed up by scientific evidence and the validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science is therefore a potential Achilles heel in fingerprint evidence. The influence of cognitive biases on expert evidence Whilst the different techniques and methods used by fingerprint examiners vary from those used in automated biometric fingerprint checks, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprint identification are the same as for biometric fingerprint checks (such as uniqueness and transferability). The results from automated biometric fingerprint checks would not however be suitable as forensic evidence at court. The main reason is that apart from the physical aspects of fingerprints, the evidential value of fingerprints is primarily based upon the expert opinions of fingerprint examiners and governed by the rules on circumstantial evidence. Highlighting the lack of objectivity in the analysis and matching of fingerprints, Stoney (1991:198) notes: In fingerprint work we become subjectively convinced of identity; we do not prove it. And this works just fine. For fingerprints. The evidential value and admissibility of fingerprint expert evidence The Law Commissions report on admissibility of evidence 2008 and 2011: The opinion evidence of an expert witness is admissible only if the court is satisfied that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted. The opinion evidence of an expert witness is sufficiently reliable to be admitted if: the evidence is predicated on sound principles, techniques and assumptions; those principles, techniques and assumptions have been properly applied to the facts of the case; and the evidence is supported by those principles, techniques and assumptions as applied to the facts of the case. It is for the party wishing to rely on the opinion evidence of an expert witness to show that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted. This means that guilt cannot be determined by expert evidence alone and that trust in the validity of fingerprint evidence requires a leap of faith. (Broeder, 2006, p. 154) Challenging the Validity of Fingerprint Evidence The validity of fingerprint evidence is dependent upon: the credibility of expert witnesses; validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science, and; the accuracy of procedures and techniques used. Despite its lack of scientific evidence, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints and reliability of methods used are rarely challenged at court. When the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints are challenged at court, it also tends to undermine the reliability of methods used in a range of forensic evidence. In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the US Supreme Court ruled that forensic evidence has to be both relevant and reliable in order to be valid. However, there are no reliability studies for fingerprint evidence and fingerprint evidence should therefore be ruled inadmissible in a US court of law. Pierce (2011) notes that the core issue in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. was the validity of deductive reasoning to reach a conclusion. (Pierce, 2011) The validity of fingerprint evidence in effect comes down to an issue of trust and credibility both of which can be undermined. The Daubert case raised the need for a model by which statistically quantifiable measures can be generated to objectively assess the reliability of fingerprint evidence. One method considered reliable by US courts is the ACE-V (analysis-comparison-evaluation-verification) method. (Haber Haber, 2008) Despite the promise of such models, Broeder (2007) argues that: No expert or expert system can provide incontrovertible categorical evidence i.e. absolute proof that a certain trace originates from a particular source. There is no objective or subjective, scientific or alternative method that will enable us to do this. Stoney (1991:198) argues that trying to prove uniqueness by use of statistical models is a ridiculous notion. (Stoney, 1991) Basis for Challenging Fingerprint Evidence Despite significant issues in terms of the validity of both theoretical underpinnings of forensic science and various techniques used, the main reason why fingerprint evidence will continue to be challenged as valid forensic science evidence is that fingerprint matching (recognition, analysis, comparison, and interpretation / evaluation) is ultimately a subjective decision-making process where results and expert evidence can be influenced by contextual and confirmation biases (human error) resulting in false identification. Whilst Stoney (1991) appears to argue that its the subjective nature of fingerprint evidence which give the individualization process credibility, Dror et. al. (2005:800) also note that fingerprint identification involves a decision making process (Dror, et al., 2005) which may ultimately result in human error and in false identification. It is therefore unfortunate that much of the debate is currently focused on attempts to improve on the reliability of fingerprint evidence through advancements in technological innovation. Attempts at improving the physical aspects of scientific evidence indicate that some problems with forensic evidence might one day be overcome by future advances in technological innovation. Whilst technical and scientific evidence are becoming increasingly important for the criminal justice system, Broeder (2006:148) suggests that its difficult for judges and juries to assess the validity of expert forensic evidence. (Broeder, 2006, p. 148) Mnookin (2008:343) argues that the courts have been seduced by superficial arguments as to the reliability of scientific methods. (Mnookin, 2008, p. 343) Considering that fingerprint evidence is ultimately a decision-making process its difficult to see how fingerprint matching could be replaced by advances in technology such as future generations of automatic fingerprint recognition systems (e.g. the ACE-V process/methodology). More effort should perhaps be focused on the social science aspect of expert forensic evidence (in particular psychology) to reduce potential cognitive biases and human error in fingerprint evidence the main basis for challenging fingerprint evidence. Cognitive Biases in Fingerprint Evidence Fingerprint evidence is supported by a general theoretical framework as to the physical principles of forensic evidence. However, fingerprint evidence is ultimately based on a series of decisions formulated by fingerprint examiners through cognitive processes. Whilst Stoney (1991) might argue that becoming subjectively convinced of identity works just fine for purpose of fingerprint matching, as it turns out, fingerprint examiners are highly susceptible to various forms of cognitive biases. Giannelli (2010) describes four different kinds of cognitive biases which may influence decision-making in forensic examination of evidence. Giannelli describes contextual bias as occurring when extraneous information influences a decision, typically in cases of ambiguity. Techniques used to avoid the influence of contextual bias when testing a new drug, include randomized (double blind) clinical trials. A similar process as part of the fingerprint verification process has been proposed by Haber and Haber (2003). (Haber Haber, 2003) Giannelli describes confirmation bias in terms of the tendency to test a hypothesis by looking for instances that confirm it rather than by searching for potentially falsifying instances. Kassin, Dror Kukucka (2013) describe the various contextual influences which may generate bias in forensic evidence, in terms of: Knowing the nature and details of the crime, being pressured by detectives; working within and as part of the police; the use of computer-generated lists that feature some suspects ahead of others; appearing in court within an adversarial criminal justice system. Experiments in cognitive biases The importance of cognitive psychology of expert evidence has been highlighted in a series of experiments conducted by Dr. Itiel Dror (2005) in which he had took the fingerprints from real criminal cases and presented them to the same fingerprint examiners who had previously given evidence at court. By changing the context for the analysis, such as strongly suggesting that a mark had previously been incorrectly matched to a print (or that a mark belonged to a particular suspect when in fact it did not), the examiners came to different conclusions, contradicting their own evidence given at court. Dr. Drors experiments showed the influence that contextual and confirmation biases can have on the outcome of fingerprint analysis. The research found that fingerprint examiners were more likely to make a match judgment on ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to emotional background stories of crimes and explicitly disturbing photographs from crime scenes, as well as subliminal messages. The researchers concluded that examiners were more likely to confirm a match in ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to contextual biases highlighting the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence. To further highlight the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence, an international panel of fingerprint experts convened to examine errors committed by the FBI which led to the identification of Brandon Mayfield note that the pressure of working on a high-profile terrorism case created an atmosphere which contributed to the misidentification. (US Department of Justice, 2006, p. 177) Error Rates and Probability Error Rates Experiments similar to those conducted by Dr. Dror (2005) have also been conducted by e.g. Ulery et. al. (2012) and Evett and Williams (1995). (Evett Williams, 1995) All such studies find varying degrees of inconsistency. Ulery et. al. found that when the same fingerprint evidence is given to the same examiners, they reach different conclusions approximately 10% of the time. (Kassin, et al., 2013) Ulery et. al. (2012:9) attributed such errors to a lack of quantitative criteria and limited qualitative criteria for decision. (Ulery, et al., 2012, p. 9) Such error rates are only known as a result of research conducted where examiners were themselves the subject of research experiments. Mnookin (2008b) (Mnookin, 2008) as well as (Haber Haber, 2003) and other researchers point to the lack of transparency of crime laboratories in disclosing the results double-blind tests where e.g. one examiner discover an error made by another examiner and that no data exist on the error rate correction resulting from the verification process. Jasanoff (2006) notes the right of US citizens to receive information, including scientific and technical information, in order to effectuate the goal of informed participation. (Jasanoff, 2006) However, considering the increasingly commercial nature of forensic laboratories, such error rate data is unlikely to be volunteered any time soon. Probability Aitken Taroni (2004:126) note that evaluation of fingerprint evidence is based on a statistical model of probabilistic inference. (Aitken Taroni, 2004) Probability may be defined as [a] statistical means of describing uncertainty. (Brenner, 1997, p. 126) Galton (1892:100) raised the problem of estimating the probability of two prints (alike in their minutiae) as having been made by two different persons and attempted to give an approximate numerical idea of the value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Galton (1892:110) calculated the probability of two different individuals having the same fingerprints (Type I error) to be less than 1 to 224 x 24 x 28 or about 1 in 64 billion. Neumann (2012:21) explains the difficulty of probability as faced by fingerprint examiners giving evidence at court: If it is his belief that the mark probably does or almost certainly does or is rather unlikely to match, he is forbidden to say so in court; in those cases, fingerprint evidence, for or against the accused, simply does not appear in the case. (Neumann, 2012) So, how common is it that examiners giving evidence at court arent necessarily 100% certain of the evidence they give at court? According to research by Neuman et.al. it happens in 30% of the all comparisons performed. (Neumann, et al., 2011) Galton notes the effect on probability when matching two or more marks to the prints of a known individual: When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to have the same minutiae, the improbability of 1 to 236 becomes squared, and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when three fingers, it is cubed, and so on. [W]hen two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc., far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as certainty. Galton (1892:111-112) Case Studies Broeder (2006) notes that there have recently been several highly publicised appeals against criminal convictions around the world where forensic evidence has played a significant role in the identification of suspects. Broeder further notes that these have at least partly been associated with inadequate standards of forensic expertise. The following case studies involve examples of Type I errors (false positives in fingerprint matching) made by examiners. Case Study 1: Shirley McKie In January 1997, DC Shirley McKie attended a crime scene in Kilmarnock, Scotland as part of an investigation into the murder of Marion Ross. A single mark found at the scene was attributed to DC McKie who denied under oath that it could be hers. DC McKie was subsequently charged with perjury. At her trial, two fingerprint experts disputed the mark belonged to DC McKie. A jury later found DC McKie not guilty of perjury. In 2008, the Scottish Government appointed Sir Anthony Campbell to hold a public inquiry into the identification and verification of fingerprints associated with the case of HM Advocate v McKie in 1999. Sir Campbell noted that [t]he community of fingerprint experts is deeply divided over the case of Shirley McKie and that some experts are perceived by others to be so closely associated with colleagues or organisations that have expressed an opinion that they are not universally regarded as being independent. (The Fingerprint Inquiry, 2011) Case Study 2: Brandon Mayfield In 2004, the Federal Bureau of Investigation identified Brandon Mayfields fingerprints as a match to a single mark found on a bag containing explosives used in the Madrid train bombings on 11 March 2004. Mayfields fingerprints had been initially retrieved as a potential match using the FBIs Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Upon closer examination, three fingerprint experts reviewing the initial result each confirmed that the mark belonged to Mayfield. (Stacey, 2004) The FBI launched a covert operation and Mayfield was subsequently arrested on 6 May 2004. An independent fingerprint expert appointed by the court to review the evidence (who also knew that a positive match had already been made) also concluded that the mark found did belong to Mayfield. Spanish Police informed the FBI that they had identified the mark as belonging to an Algerian national. After examining the prints of the Algerian national, the FBI released Mayfield from custody. The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) concluded that the reason for the misidentification was due to the unusual similarity between the [latent print] and Mayfields known fingerprint which had confused three experienced FBI examiners and a court-appointed expert. (US Department of Justice, 2006) Discussion Fingerprint evidence was first used in the UK in 1858 and is the most common form of forensic evidence used at court today. Fingerprint evidence has also been raised as one of the most important categories of forensic evidence admitted at court. However, a study conducted by Baldwin and McConville (1980) found that forensic evidence played a significant role in only five per cent of cases presented at court. Inman and Rudin (2002:1) describe forensic science as an applied science based on the laws of physics and chemistry. (Inman Rudin, 2002) Whilst this might provide an appropriate definition of forensic science, it ignores the importance of psychology in forensic evidence. The reliability of fingerprints as a means of identification (individualization) for purpose of evidence at court continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. Mnookin (2001:16) argues that scrutiny of expert evidence does not take place in a cultural vacuum and infers that fingerprint evidence was accepted too quickly in US courts. In 2013, a US District Court Judge ruled that the process fingerprint identification failed to meet three of the four criteria set for scientific evidence. The technique hadnt been scientifically tested Wasnt subject to scientific peer review Didnt possess a known rate of error The ruling means that whilst the court accepts that the process of fingerprint analysis does not meet the standards set for scientific evidence, the testimony of expert fingerprint analysts may still be admissible as evidence at court. Because the validity of fingerprint evidence is primarily based upon the credibility expert witnesses, challenges as to the validity of fingerprint evidence need to address the psychological aspects of forensic science, in other words the potential cognitive (contextual and confirmation) biases of forensic experts resulting in false identification. Part of this effort might involve simple solutions such as shielding fingerprint examiners from the details of crimes being investigated or having all fingerprint experts directly appointed by the courts. Other requirements might involve a minimum of two marks or more having to match the prints of a suspect before it can be used as evidence at court.

Love and Hate Expressed by Characters in William Shakespeares Othello

Love and Hate Expressed by Characters in William Shakespeare's Othello In the play Othello, by William Shakespeare, different characters contribute to the development of particular themes. Three strong themes portrayed by the characters are of; misplaced trust, love vs. Hate and jealousy, and shattered innocence. The first theme of misplaced trust is clearly evident in most of all the characters that are manipulated by the depraved Iago. Roderigo is the first character to be entangled in his web of deception, whom I will focus on. Iago essentially uses Roderigo as a source of financial gain and a tool in extracting his revenge on the other characters. In Act I, Iago has him awaken Brabantio in order to spoil Othello's secret honeymoon with his daughter; "Call up her father. Rouse him, make after him, poison his delight."(1.1.69-70) Iago financially abuses Roderigo as well, consoling him constantly to "put money in thy purse," (1.3.335) therefore supporting Iago's expenditures, which are supposedly winning Desdemona's love for him. Only later in the play does Rod...

The Prince Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"All the states, all the dominions, under whose authority men have lived in the past and live now have been and are either republics or principalities.† In Machiavelli’s, The Prince, timeless keys to a successful principality are examined. The keys are understanding human nature, respecting that nature, and reaffirming that successful leadership can exist in the same fashion yesterday, today, and tomorrow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Machiavelli’s perspective of human nature is founded on the principle that people in general don’t want their culture changed by an outside influence. Machiavelli demonstrates in the book that the nature of people is to defend who they are. When â€Å"the prince† attempts to change their culture in any way the subjects will do any number of things to crush this attempt or even change the leadership. If a prince uses force to try to change people this will lead to hostility, because as Machiavellis says, â€Å"they remain, defeated, in their own homes.† This underlying fact will lead to a rebellion of some sort. One way this rebellion can happen is when a powerful foreigner invades the principality. The now â€Å"defeated† people will join this powerful foreigner, in hopes that their culture will now be respected, to dethrone the prince. When the prince tries to use force to control the people it only creates enemies. Machiavelli explains this aspect of human nature when he writes, â€Å"he harms the whole state by billeting his army in different parts of the country, everyone suffers from this annoyance, and everybody is turned into an enemy.† On the contrast if a prince allows the people to keep their customs Machiavelli states that the people will remain content when he writes, â€Å"For the rest, so long as their old ways of life are undisturbed and there is no divergence in customs, men live quietly.† Another natural tendency of people comes with freedom. Once they have had a taste of freedom, they virtually cannot live without it. This feeling of control over one’s life is a quality that once molded is nearly impossible to reshape. Machiavelli asserts this idea when he writes, â€Å"a city used to freedom can be more easily ruled through its own citizens...than in any other way.† The same tendency lies in the control that the prince gains over the people in the principality. Once the prince has control he finds that gi... ...ook† Mao used positive reenforcement to oil the gears of one of the worlds strongest super powers. Mao didn’t try to use force and change the culture in China rather he persuaded the people into having great national pride. This pride enabled Mao to control the people also build a strong military and defend his land. In China Mao did and still today, decades after his death, have a hand in every aspect of Chinese life. Both of these leaders project how timeless Machiavelli’s ideas truly are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first rung of the ladder to a successful principality is the understanding of human nature. A nature that values consistency over forced change and an atmosphere of control over one’s self instead of someone blatently controlling another. Through this understanding of human nature can a prince hold his power. Once he holds this power the best way to keep it is by providing defense for the people whom he has power over. These ideas were present in the infamous reigns of Hitler and Mao. Machiavelli is correct there are either principalities or republics, and I have come to the conclusion I prefer the latter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Prince Essay -- essays research papers â€Å"All the states, all the dominions, under whose authority men have lived in the past and live now have been and are either republics or principalities.† In Machiavelli’s, The Prince, timeless keys to a successful principality are examined. The keys are understanding human nature, respecting that nature, and reaffirming that successful leadership can exist in the same fashion yesterday, today, and tomorrow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Machiavelli’s perspective of human nature is founded on the principle that people in general don’t want their culture changed by an outside influence. Machiavelli demonstrates in the book that the nature of people is to defend who they are. When â€Å"the prince† attempts to change their culture in any way the subjects will do any number of things to crush this attempt or even change the leadership. If a prince uses force to try to change people this will lead to hostility, because as Machiavellis says, â€Å"they remain, defeated, in their own homes.† This underlying fact will lead to a rebellion of some sort. One way this rebellion can happen is when a powerful foreigner invades the principality. The now â€Å"defeated† people will join this powerful foreigner, in hopes that their culture will now be respected, to dethrone the prince. When the prince tries to use force to control the people it only creates enemies. Machiavelli explains this aspect of human nature when he writes, â€Å"he harms the whole state by billeting his army in different parts of the country, everyone suffers from this annoyance, and everybody is turned into an enemy.† On the contrast if a prince allows the people to keep their customs Machiavelli states that the people will remain content when he writes, â€Å"For the rest, so long as their old ways of life are undisturbed and there is no divergence in customs, men live quietly.† Another natural tendency of people comes with freedom. Once they have had a taste of freedom, they virtually cannot live without it. This feeling of control over one’s life is a quality that once molded is nearly impossible to reshape. Machiavelli asserts this idea when he writes, â€Å"a city used to freedom can be more easily ruled through its own citizens...than in any other way.† The same tendency lies in the control that the prince gains over the people in the principality. Once the prince has control he finds that gi... ...ook† Mao used positive reenforcement to oil the gears of one of the worlds strongest super powers. Mao didn’t try to use force and change the culture in China rather he persuaded the people into having great national pride. This pride enabled Mao to control the people also build a strong military and defend his land. In China Mao did and still today, decades after his death, have a hand in every aspect of Chinese life. Both of these leaders project how timeless Machiavelli’s ideas truly are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first rung of the ladder to a successful principality is the understanding of human nature. A nature that values consistency over forced change and an atmosphere of control over one’s self instead of someone blatently controlling another. Through this understanding of human nature can a prince hold his power. Once he holds this power the best way to keep it is by providing defense for the people whom he has power over. These ideas were present in the infamous reigns of Hitler and Mao. Machiavelli is correct there are either principalities or republics, and I have come to the conclusion I prefer the latter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Aestheticism: Philosophy of Beauty Essay

Aestheticism is presently defined by the Encyclopedia Britannica as â€Å"intended to designate a scientific doctrine or account of beauty, in nature and art, and for the enjoyment and originating beauty which exists in man†. In other words, aestheticism is a philosophy of beauty. An Aesthete has a great appreciation for nature. One may look at an object, place, or person and perceive it a different way than another person may perceive it. For an Aesthete to obtain pleasure, â€Å"it is the perspectives of perception that is necessary to an understanding of both appreciation and creation†. Aestheticism is a very deep and meaningful philosophy whose meaning has been changed and interpreted by many historical figures such as Alexander Baumgarten, Immanuel Kant, and Oscar Wilde. The philosophical discipline of aesthetics did not receive its name until 1735, when the twenty-one year old Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten introduced it in his Halle master’s thesis to mean episteme aisthetike, or the science of what is sensed and imagined. Initially, the focus of aestheticism was not so much on art as it was on the experience of, and judgments about, beauty in all its forms. Aesthetics is necessarily interdisciplinary and may be interpretive, prescriptive, descriptive, or a combination of these. The younger Baumgarten started at the university at sixteen (in 1730), and studied theology, philology, poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy, especially Leibniz, whose philosophy was not banned. He began teaching there himself in 1735, upon the acceptance of his thesis on poetry, and published his Metaphysics in 1739. In 1740, the same year as he published his Ethics, he was called to a professorship — or more precisely, ordered to accept it — at another Prussian university, in Frankfurt an der Oder. The first volume of his Aesthetica appeared in 1750. It was written in Latin, like Baumgarten’s other works, and was the first work ever to use the name of the new discipline as a title. The next year, however, Baumgarten’s health began to decline and a second volume of the Aestheticacame out only in 1758, under pressure from the publisher. Baumgarten’s Meditations on Poetry conclude with his famous introduction of the term â€Å"aesthetics†: â€Å"The Greek philosophers and the Church fathers have always carefully distinguished between the aistheta and the noeta,†that is, between objects of sense and objects of thought, and while the latter, that is, â€Å"what can be cognized through the higher faculty† of mind, are â€Å"the object of logic, the aistheta are the subject of the episteme aisthetike or AESTHETICS,† the science of perception. However, in the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined aestheticism as both â€Å"the analysis of taste† and â€Å"the analysis of sensible cognition or intuition†. Immanuel Kant was a Prussian philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality. One part Kant’s philosophy of aestheticism was the â€Å"Deduction of Taste†, which instilled that everything interesting and fundamental happened in the formation of concepts, or in the receiving of intuitions. But now Kant argues that judgment itself, as a faculty, has an fundamental principle that governs it. This principle asserts the purposiveness of all phenomena with respect to our judgment. In other words, it assumes in advance that everything we experience can be tackled by our powers of judgment. Normally, we don’t even notice that this assumption is being made, we just apply concepts, and be done with it. But in the case of the beautiful, we do notice. This is because the beautiful draws particular attention to its purposiveness; but also because the beautiful has no concept of a purpose available, so that we cannot just apply a concept and be done with it. Instead, the beautiful forces us to grope for concepts that we can never find. And yet, nevertheless, the beautiful is not an alien and disturbing experience – on the contrary, it is pleasurable. The principle of purposiveness is satisfied, but in a new and unique way. For Kant, the other basic type of aesthetic experience is the sublime. The sublime names experiences like violent storms or huge buildings which seem to overwhelm us; that is, we feel we ‘cannot get our head around them’. This is either mainly ‘mathematical’ – if our ability to intuit is overwhelmed by size (the huge building) – or ‘dynamical’ – if our ability to will or resist is overwhelmed by force (e. g. the storm). The problem for Kant here is that this experience seems to directly contradict the principle of the purposiveness of nature for our judgment. And yet, Kant notes, one would expect the feeling of being overwhelmed to also be accompanied by a feeling of fear or at least discomfort, whereas, the sublime can be a pleasurable experience. In contrast, Oscar Wilde prefaced his novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, with a reflection on art, the artist, and the utility of both. After careful scrutiny, he concludes: â€Å"All art is quite useless† (Wilde 4). In this one sentence, Wilde encapsulates the complete principles of the Aesthetic Movement popular in Victorian England. That is to say, real art takes no part in molding the social or moral identities of society, nor should it. Art should be beautiful and pleasure its observer, but to imply further-reaching influence would be a mistake. The explosion of aesthetic philosophy in fin-de-siecle English society, as exemplified by Oscar Wilde, was not confined to merely art, however. Rather, the proponents of this philosophy extended it to life itself. Here, aestheticism advocated whatever behavior was likely to maximize the beauty and happiness in one’s life, in the tradition of hedonism. To the aesthete, the ideal life mimics art; it is beautiful, but quite useless beyond its beauty, concerned only with the individual living it. Aesthetics found that through their great interest in beauty, pleasure that is derived from objects of art is more beautiful than other pleasures. Overall, many philosophers have interpreted the principle of aestheticism in their own ways. Without aestheticism, the deep understanding we now have of the connection of our lives with all forms of art would not be possible. Therefore, after centuries of conceptual making, aestheticism remains as a very complex subject which any poetic heart would be delighted to learn for the benefit of further understanding the purpose for the existence of art. Art through music, paintings, dance, and performance are all unique, but alike in one way: they are products of an artist’s ability, and desire, to create beauty. Works Cited Burnham, Douglas. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics. n. d. 9 February 2014 . Duggan, Patrick. The Conflict Between Aestheticism and Morality in Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Darian Gray. n. d. 9 February 2014 . Guyer, Paul. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 18th Century German Aesthetics. 16 January 2007. 9 February 2014 . Rohlf, Michael. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Immanuel Kant. 20 May 2010. 9 February 2014 .

Frank Norris’ work “Vandover and the Brute” Essay

The development of sexuality in Frank Norris’ work â€Å"Vandover and the Brute† is an interesting reflection of the Puritanical views that Americans have towards sexuality, promiscuity and the consequences thereof. The importance of this book is that it openly examined this value system in 1914, a time when Vandover’s behavior, even without the lycanthropy, was considered brutish and improper. Yet the American environment was in the midst of the first â€Å"sexual† revolution as many young women of the 1920s would don clothing that revealed their flesh and boyish haircuts for the â€Å"Roaring Twenties†. Again in the 1960s, the next major era of women’s rights movements, sexuality would be tied to freedom and women would equate burning their bras and free love with freedom and independence. This book then is a look at how a young man might acquire the values of the community around him without ever being taught directly that sex is dirty and that women are somehow degraded when they participate in it. The interesting thing about Norris’ work, which was published after his death, is that Vandover managed to acquire these misguided notions of sexuality on his own. In the first chapter, the author points out that during his adolescent years Vandover’s only female contact was with the housekeeper with whom he was constantly at odds. In addition, because his father would not discuss sexuality with him, he was forced to turn to an Encyclopedia Britannica to answers his questions about women and sex. He was subjected to the crude jokes and unconscious sexual immaturity of boys going through puberty, but without a mother, governess or other strong feminine influence to teach him right from wrong. Indeed, if one assumes that the author was in fact trying to make a statement about society rather than just tell a story about a maladjusted young man in the late 19th century, it becomes clear from the very first chapters that one of Norris’ indictments is against Vandover’s father and his unwillingness to talk to his son about the facts of life. In dead, one of the underlying themes through the entire work is the idea that people only hint at their feelings and do not openly discuss the sexual nature of humanity even though it is a significant portion of their lives. One of the most interesting facets of this book is the discussion of Vandover’s first sexual encounter and his embarrassment and guilt over it. If the situation had perhaps been handled with some amount of discussion, it might have prevented the events that would later occur, including Vandover’s seduction of a â€Å"good girl†, her subsequent suicide, and his eventuality degradation to gambling and alcoholism. The author’s message that society needs to quit hiding its own nature and covering for the high class when they engage in reckless behavior is evident mid-book when Haight explains to Vandover that several of the young, classy women at a cotillion were drunk. Haight tells his friends that society should call a spade a spade and that when women of class drink too much they should be considered drunk as much as any man. This dual criticism of the means by which people receive a sexual education and the double-standards applied to men and women is perhaps the most interesting passage in the book. Another interesting idea that Norris sets forth through the theme of the book and the story itself is that Vandover’s sexuality and promisecuity are to blame for the turn of events for him, including the loss of his family fortune and his new role as a werewolf. Interestingly, rather than approaching the concept that Vandover’s situation might be a result of his addictive behavior including his sexually predatory nature, his alcoholism and his gambling addiction, the reader is left with the idea that the bad things which happen to him are consequences of his sexuality alone. Though Norris portrays Vandover throughout the novel as a weak-willed individual who is too lazy to work hard and get what he wants out of life, everything in his life is blamed on his sexuality and his desire for women of a certain type. The fact that Vandover does not settle down with a fine, upstanding woman, regardless of his feelings for her is seen as an affront to society as a whole. The most important messages about sexuality that are relayed via â€Å"Vandover and The Brute† are the concepts that sexuality exists as it does because people don’t talk about it and that there are consequences for sexual behavior. The first concept is perhaps the most intriguing because it still applies now, almost 100 years later. Though we do not have the same level of closed-mouth attitudes toward sex as Vandover encountered, it is not uncommon even in the modern day to find parents of high school students who do not want their children exposed to sex education for fear that the education will lead to promiscuity. Instead of teaching real information regarding the dangers, both physical and emotional, of beginning a sexual relationship at the wrong time, too many parents concentrate on the Puritanical approach to sex education, associating it with guilt and sin. Young people are not properly educated regarding the safety issues of sex and sexually transmitted diseases continue at epidemic levels when they could be prevented with adequate discussion of the topic. Ironically, as we approach the 100-year mark for the publication, Norris’ primary criticism of the teaching of sexuality still stands today.